Outcome-Based Education:
Creating a Set of Learning Objectives
by Anita Duhl Glicken, MSW

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For most courses eight to twelve general instructional goals will usually suffice; for a brief unit of instruction two to four may be sufficient. Using Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives1 , a framework of three major categories can be used to classify instructional objectives. These categories include cognitive (outcomes involving intellectual tasks), affective (outcomes involving feelings and emotions) and psychomotor (outcomes involving performance skills). The cognitive and affective domains have the most developed classification systems. The categories in these domains are arranged in hierarchical order from simple to complex. For example, the cognitive domain includes performance at the following levels: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. It is assumed that higher levels subsume and include all behaviors of lower levels.2

The affective domain includes the following major categories in hierarchical order: receiving, responding, valuing, organization and characterization by a value or value complex.3

The psychomotor domain includes the following major categories, also in hierarchical order: perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation and origination.4

Descriptions and examples of verbs for all three categories can be found in Tables 2, 3, and 4.

All objectives provided in Section II of this manual have been identified according to the domain of learning and the performance level. For example, the following objective is cited as representing the cognitive domain of learning at the synthesis performance level.

  • Upon presentation of an adult patient's medical history and physical exam report, the student will select an appropriate pharmacologic intervention for diabetes mellitus that has not responded to diet and exercise, including drug dosage, frequency, administration, side effects, and follow-up. (Cognitive - synthesis)

 

Table 2. Major Categories in the Cognitive Domain of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives5
Categories Description Verbs
Knowledge Recall of learned material Defines, describes, identifies, lists, matches, names, selects, states
Comprehension Ability to grasp meaning of material; interprets material Distinguishes, estimates, explains, gives examples, paraphrases, summarizes, interprets
Application Ability to use material in new and concrete situations Changes, demonstrates, predicts, solves, relates
Analysis Ability to break down material into component parts so that organizational structure is understood Breaks down, diagrams, differentiates, identifies, outlines, divides, separates
Synthesis Ability to put parts together to create a new whole i.e. a research proposal, speech, scheme for classifying information, formulation of new patterns or structure Categorizes, combines, creates, generates, plans, reconstructs , summarizes, reorganizes
Evaluation Ability to judge the value of material for a given purpose. Judgments based on specific criteria. Include conscious value judgments Appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, justifies, interprets, relates

 

Table 3. Major Categories in the Affective Domain of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives6
Categories Description Verbs
Receiving Willingness to attend to activities or stimuli Asks, chooses, identifies, names, replies, selects, uses
Responding Active participation, student not only attends, but reacts Answers, helps, performs, presents, greets, complies, assists
Valuing Worth student attaches to experience, object or behavior Completes, describes, follows, initiates, invites, shares, justifies
Organization Bringing together different values, resolving conflicts and building an internally consistent value system Alters, arranges, completes, defends, explains, prepares, organizes, synthesizes, adheres
Characterization by Value or Value Complex Value system in place that controls behavior; behavior is pervasive, consistent and predictable Discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, questions, solves, acts, performs, practices

 

Table 4. Major Categories in the Psychomotor Domain of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives7
Categories Description Verbs
Perception Use of sense organs for cues--guide motor activity Chooses, describes, identifies, selects, relates, differentiates
Set Readiness to take a type of action Begins, responds, shows, explains, moves, reacts
Guided Response Early stages of learning a complex skill, imitates, trial and error testing Assembles, dissects, measures, organizes, sketches, constructs
Mechanism Learned responses are habituated, movements performed with confidence and proficiency Assembles, dissects, measures, organizes, sketches, constructs
Complex Overt Response Skillful performance of motor sets that require complex motor patterns, quick, accurate performance Assembles, dissects, measures, organizes, sketches, constructs
Adaptation Individual can modify movement patterns to meet new problem situation Adapts, revises, changes, reorganizes, alters
Organization VCreating new movement patterns to fit a new problem or situation based on highly developed skills Arranges, composes, constructs, designs, originates

 

1Bloom, BS. , et al. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook I, Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1956.

2Bloom, BS. , et al. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook I, Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1956.

3Krathwohl, DR. , ed., et al. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook II, Affective Domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1964.

4Simpson, EJ. The Classification of Educational Objectives in the Psychomotor Domain. The Psychomotor Domain.. Vol. 3. Washington: Gryphon House, 1972.

5Bloom, BS. , et al. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook I, Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1956.

6Krathwohl, DR. , ed., et al. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook II, Affective Domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1964.

7Simpson, EJ. The Classification of Educational Objectives in the Psychomotor Domain. The Psychomotor Domain.. Vol. 3. Washington: Gryphon House, 1972.

Outcome-Based Education
Next Using Objectives for Classroom Instruction

Teaching Tip

Change the media style on presentations every 10-15 minutes to maintain student interest and concentration.

Randy Cupp
University of Washington PA Program
rcc1@u.washington.edu

 

 

Teaching Tip

For small group learning, students enjoy an occasional game, i.e., “Jeopardy” or “Trivial Pursuit,” with various categories relating to whatever subject matter was taught

Anonymous

 

 

 

 

Teaching Tip

Each Tuesday the PA students may participate in a 90-minute review of integrated didactic material taught over the past week. Since its inception this year, 30 of 36 students elect to attend.

Jennifer Holycross
Butler University/Clarian Health PA Program
jholycro@butler.edu

 

 

 

 

Teaching Tip

Consider holding a focus group after each quarter of classes, in addition to individual course evaluations.

Randy Danielson
School of Health Sciences PA Program
rdanielson@ashs.edu

 

 

 

 

Teaching Tip

Assign students to teach specific conditions and diseases back to their peers as a component of their professional development.

Raylene Lawrence [PA student]
University of Washington PA Program
ril@u.washington.edu